In the history of our nation’s struggle against foreign aggressions, apart from the Northern invaders who rarely used the sea route, most other forces launched their first invasions against our country from the sea. In case of a war to defend the Fatherland in the future, it is highly likely that the sea will remain the main direction of the enemy’s assault. Therefore, studying how to counter enemy’s seaborne landings, both in theory and in practice, is crucial for such a maritime nation as Vietnam.

Combat coordination between the Navy’s vessels during a training course (photo: baohaiquanvietnam.vn)

Previously, there were numerous studies on combating enemy’s seaborne landings, and a theoretical framework on this issue has been gradually developed. Recently, several scientific studies have continued to focus on combating enemy’s seaborne landings in military region-level defensive combat, in strategic defensive operations, and in operational-level combat against enemy’s seaborne landings. However, no conclusive findings have been introduced, nor has a system of Army-wide training materials been established. In case of a war to defend the Fatherland, with the new characteristics of modern warfare - particularly with the significant advancements in our Military’s combat capabilities amidst the Navy and Air Force’ direct advancement to modernity, and new investments and developments in the Ground Forces, operations in general, and those concerning combating our enemy’s seaborne landings in particular, will continue to evolve, which necessitates deeper and more thorough research regarding this matter. Within this article, we would like to put forward some issues related to combating the enemy’s seaborne landings in a war for Fatherland protection.

1. Forecast of the enemy

In the future, when conducting an invasion of our country from the sea, the enemy may organise a seaborne landing assault operation, primarily consisting of a marine division along with reinforcements and logistics forces. This force will aim to seize several coastal areas, allowing infantry and mechanised infantry to penetrate further inland towards their main strategic objectives. While landing, the enemy is likely to employ ship-to-shore method, which means they will transit their troops at sea using large vessels and then transfer them onto landing craft near the coast for the landings. Upon reaching the staging area, their infantry and tanks will disembark from the landing craft to move ashore. However, depending on the situation and particular circumstances, the enemy may also employ an over-the-horizon landing method (typically used for the first landing wave), assembling their landing craft far from the shore, using high-speed hovercraft to transport troops directly onto the land to ensure the element of surprise. During the transit and landing phases, the enemy will place great emphasis on air and artillery support, as well as the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and unmanned surface vessels (USVs) to take control of maritime and air zones over the course of their seaborne landing operations.

2. Combating the enemy’s seaborne landings

Over the past years, due to certain limitations in our combat and support capabilities, particularly in the Navy, Air Force, artillery, missile forces, and to some extent the Ground Forces, our ability to annihilate the enemy at sea was very restricted. Similarly, it was challenging to inflict significant losses on the enemy at the line of water edge. To avoid the enemy’s firepower superiority along the coast, only to a limited extent we would often plan to engage the enemy at sea and at the line of water edge; rather we focus mainly on defeating the enemy during their assault landing and airborne landings in seaborne landings. However, once the enemy set foot on the ground, we could no longer exploit their weak points as effectively as when they were still operating offshore. Nevertheless, given the constraints in our capabilities, this approach of engaging the enemy upon landing was still a reasonable solution.

Currently, our Military’s combat capability has significantly been improved, especially the Navy and the Air Defence - Air Force advancing directly to modernity, and the Ground Forces receiving substantial enhancements. In addition, the people’s war posture has been prepared in peacetime, with the combat postures of provincial and municipal defensive zones, military region-level defence, and strategic defensive operations have been firmly established with special attention given to the investment and development of the people’s war posture at sea. In the event of conflict, we will be fighting on our own territory, while the enemy will launch their attacks from outside. This gives us the ability to control the sea and airspace at critical moments. With such capabilities, in present and future scenarios (should a war break out), we can effectively combat the enemy’s seaborne landings from the area where they transfer from ships to landing crafts towards the shore. We can carry out decisive strikes at sea, potentially launching key or decisive offshore engagement (if an operation is initiated by our command), inflicting heavy losses on the enemy at the water’s edge using the combined strength of our forces, and executing follow-up decisive engagements as part of the operation. Additionally, we can carry out decisive engagements to destroy enemy forces as they reach the shore and deal with airborne assaults as part of the amphibious operation, etc.

3. Combating the enemy at sea

Regarding timing (attacking the enemy from the area where they conduct ship-to-shore transfer), the opportune moment is when the enemy begins transferring troops from transport ships to landing craft and during their movement towards the shore. The primary targets at this stage are the landing crafts, while the key targets include fire support ships and minesweeping vessels. As for the use of forces, the main effort will come from the Navy’s combat group, including surface combatants, submarines, ground-based anti-ship missile units, naval commandos, UAVs, USVs, and naval aviation. Additionally, the Air Defence - Air Force will deploy fighter jets, fighter-bombers, attack helicopters, and UAVs, while the Ground Forces will support the operation with artillery and missile units. Forces from the people’s war posture at sea, such as the coast guard and maritime militia, will also be involved.

In terms of tactic, we can launch either simultaneous or sequential strikes against seaborne targets. Simultaneous strikes involve all or most of the forces attacking selected targets or groups of targets at once. Sequential strikes, on the other hand, are carried out step by step by each force on pre-determined targets or target groups. Typically, the sequence begins with a strike by surface combatants, followed by strikes from ground-based missile units, air force, submarines, and interspersed operations by naval commandos, UAVs, USVs, and other forces. The goal of these strikes is to inflict major losses on the enemy’s amphibious force, significantly weakening their strength and creating favourable conditions for our forces to engage the enemy during their landing assault phase.

4. Combating the enemy at the line of water edge

The best timing for combating an enemy seaborne landing is when they conduct assault landing and attempt to hold the shoreline (the line of the water edge); at this stage, they are transitioning from water-based operations to land assault - fighting from a vulnerable position with their backs to the water. At this point, their command and control and coordination have not been firmly established yet, and their fire support is less effective. Meanwhile, we are in a position to maximise the combat capabilities of our forces, especially the firepower from artillery, missile, air force units, and the land-based weaponry of the infantry positioned on the shore. The primary targets are the landing craft (away 3 to 5 km from the shore), the troops landing on the beach, fire support vessels, attack helicopters, and UAVs, etc. Among these, destroying landing crafts, infantry, and tanks disembarking and moving towards the shore is the key objective. The tactic for this stage involves organising concerted interoperability engagements to inflict heavy losses on the enemy as they manoeuvre, land, and disembark infantry and tanks from their landing craft. During these engagements, we must use all available firepower, especially those of the units defending the coastal areas.

Regarding the use of forces, previously, due to the limitations in our combat capabilities, engaging the enemy at the line of water edge could only be conducted to a certain extent, primarily relying on local armed forces. Today, and in the future, as our Military’s combat strength has increased, we are capable of inflicting significant losses on the enemy at the line of water edge. Therefore, at key points along the shoreline, it is advisable to deploy regular infantry regiments from the military region tasked with coastal defence, while local armed forces can be employed elsewhere. These units should be supported by artillery, missiles, UAVs, USVs, tanks, air defence systems (positioned along the coastline), fighter-bombers, and helicopters to during combat. The goal is to engage the enemy at the water edge with all available firepower, with great emphasis on suppressing enemy artillery and missile force, and defending against enemy airpower, while striving to gain aerial and naval superiority at key moments. As for the remaining enemy forces at sea, the operation’s naval group should concentrate on attacking the next waves of landing crafts and fire support, command and logistics vessels.

5. Combating the enemy during post-landing phase and enemy airborne landings in amphibious operations

With our current and near-future capabilities, we are capable of more effectively combating amphibious landings at sea and the line of water edge, but we may have yet to grab the ability to deliver a decisive blow to completely defeat an amphibious force. Therefore, engagements and operations against the enemy during post-landing phase, as well as against their airborne landings as part of the amphibious operation, play a decisive role in defeating the enemy’s plan.

Regarding targets and timing, we need to study and select key targets, with a focus on command centres, concentrated infantry and armour formations, firepower positions, and other essential elements of the enemy forces that have landed. It is also important to target airborne forces that have not linked their landing zones together yet. At this stage, the enemy’s defensive positions have not been consolidated, enemy formations have not been properly deployed, their command and coordination have not been well-established, firepower support has not been fully effective, and their foothold has not been secure yet. In terms of tactic, if we have not organised a full-scale operation to repel the amphibious landing yet, we can conduct regimental or divisional-level, or smaller-scale counter-offensive operations to strike the enemy during the post-landing phase, including their airborne forces. When organising a full-blown operation against an amphibious landing, we should engage the enemy at suitable scales to combat those already ashore and their supporting airborne forces, focusing on key and decisive battles. As for the use of forces, the primary forces would be the mobile regular divisions of the military region tasked with the defence of coastal area of operation, along with the mobile regular forces of the Ministry of National Defence, armoured, artillery, and missile units, other branches of the military region and the Ministry, and local armed forces within provincial-level defensive zones. The Air Defence - Air Force should focus on striking airborne forces, while naval units should continue attacking enemy forces at sea. If conditions permit, we could also deploy marines to recapture islands, among other operations.

6. Issues requiring further study

At present, there are differing views on the concept of combating the enemy’s seaborne landing operations. Some argue that combating the enemy’s seaborne landing operations is merely a phase of a defensive operation against the enemy’s land assault. However, combating the enemy’s seaborne landing is a distinct form of warfare, differing from land-based operations in terms of the enemy’s nature, objectives, combat environment, force utilisation, and fighting methods, etc. If we consider amphibious defence merely as a phase of a land-based defensive operation, we would fail to accurately reflect the nature of these operations and would not fully identify the core issues of amphibious defence. Therefore, it is essential to define amphibious defence as a distinct type of operation, closely related to land-based defensive operation, but not simply a phase of it.

7. On organising an operation against the enemy’s seaborne landings

At present, we have been conducting researches on combating amphibious landings within the framework of military region-level defence, strategic defensive operations, and operations against amphibious landings. However, there have not been any seminars or conclusive discussions on the organisation of such operations. The types of operations used in our current training courses have yet to fully meet the operational requirements for engaging amphibious forces, as an operation against amphibious landing differs significantly from traditional operations. These differences include aspects such as the nature of the enemy, operational objectives, tasks, timing, space, combat disposition, force organisation, operational phases, key engagements, and the overall operational combat methods. Therefore, there is a need for further research into operations to counter amphibious landings (or what could be called coastal defence operations) to organise operations at key areas with the aim of defeating the enemy’s amphibious landing operations.

In the future, as our Military develops into a modern one, it will be possible to organise joint operations to combat an amphibious landing. Joint operations involve the coordinated efforts of at least two or more services of the armed forces, where each service utilises sufficient force and may play a central role in the different stages and tasks of the operation. Combating an amphibious landing takes place mainly in offshore and coastal operational areas, and the operation command can effectively utilise major forces from different services, especially those with an operational environment suited to playing a central role in various stages and tasks of the operation. The naval task force will play the core role in combating the enemy at sea and conducting decisive naval engagements. The Ground Forces will play the central role in combating the enemy at the water edge and against enemy forces landing onshore, as well as against amphibious airborne forces, executing key engagements within the campaign. The Air Defence - Air Force can act as the primary force in countering the enemy’s airstrikes and, when possible, can also take on the central role in fighting enemy amphibious airborne landings.

Given the scope and nature of this subject, this article cannot cover everything in detail, and some issues cannot be thoroughly addressed. Therefore, we hope to receive further feedback and discussion on this matter.

Lieutenant General, Associate Prof., Dr TRAN THAI BINH